Introduction

Turkmenistan is located in Central Asia, bordering Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and the Caspian Sea. Its population is under four million, according to 1996 estimates; Turkmens make up the majority, living with smaller numbers of Uzbeks, Russians, Kazakhs, Tajiks, and Persians. Approximately 2,500 Jews lived in Turkmenistan in 1989, but many have emigrated to America and the other Soviet republics; today, only about 1,000 Jews remain, mostly in the capital city, Ashkhabad. While Turkmenistan is rich with natural gas resources, most of the wealth is controlled by the ruling elites. Overall, Turkmen society is one of the poorest in the former Soviet Union. Breadlines are long, and there have been several reports of foodstuff shortages. Turkmenistan's society is closed, so it is difficult to obtain information. Turkmen President Saparmurad Niyazov has ruled authoritatively and autocratically since the nation's independence from Russia in 1991. Political opposition is forbidden and there is no freedom of the press. Human rights monitors have occasionally been denied access to the country.

Jewish Life

Jewish services and institutions are scarce in Turkmenistan. Though the state has diplomatic relations with Israel, consular services are only available in Tashkent, Uzbekistan: obtaining a visa is very costly. The Ashkhabad synagogue was converted into a sports complex under the Soviets, and there are no other formal congregations. While Ulpan programs have been taught, there is no formal Jewish school. This situation greatly differs from those of the other Central Asian states, where post-Soviet Jewish life has developed. Overall, little information on Jewish life in Turkmenistan is available.

Antisemitism and the Government Response

President Saparmurad Niyazov has stated his support for freedom of religion, including that of Jews. Furthermore, although he established political and economic ties with Iran, Niyazov has opened diplomatic relations with Israel. But despite these gestures, Turkmenistan has gradually become more Islamicized, and many non-Moslems have faced discrimination in the workplace and in the schools. The American Association of Jews from the Former Soviet Union reported that non-Muslims have been made to feel insecure by the growth of Islam, which has risen in prominence in society. And though Niyazov has publicly supported language freedoms, the Russian-speaking minority (which includes many of the Turkmenistan Jews) has felt particularly threatened in recent years.

Selected Antisemitic Incidents

In May 1996, Viktor S., 32, was kidnapped, tortured, and murdered a month before he was to immigrate to Israel with his wife, two children, and his mother. The killers were two men who had claimed to be interested in buying Viktor's car and wanted to take it out for a test drive. They drove to a secluded area, tortured him, bound his hands and feet, and buried him alive. Then they contacted Viktor's wife and demanded ransom for his release.

The killers were eventually captured, but they were released after they signed a promise to not leave town (they fled immediately). It is believed that the killers had ties to organized crime, and that the police were bribed for their release. Since this incident, Turkmen Jews have feared for the lack of protection by the state. One Jewish family was so terrified that it simply abandoned its property when it emigrated to the United States, rather than risk selling their belongings to others.- The American Association of Jews from the Former Soviet Union

Human Rights

The Niyazov regime has suppressed most civil rights in Turkmenistan. The country is the only in the FSU that practices forcible psychiatric institutionalization of political enemies.

Niyazov's Democratic Party (formerly the Communist Party) is the only legal political faction-all others have been banned, and opposition leaders have been beaten and/or imprisoned. Niyazov has created a cult of personality and has referred to himself as "Turkmen-Bashi"-Father of all Turkmen. The government runs radio and television, and all printed material is screened for anti-state bias. Turkmens are largely prohibited from speaking with foreign media. Intellectuals have also been intimidated into supporting the state in their various works; failure to comply with the regime has resulted in the removal of one's works from libraries and other state institutions. Those who have been openly critical have been arrested for "hooliganism" or unrelated petty crimes. Even relatives of dissidents have been fired or expelled from school, and they often face persecution.

While the Turkmen constitution provides for due process in judiciary matters, the State Department's Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor reports that defendants, especially political prisoners, are rarely afforded these rights. The government has also interfered in citizens' private lives through phone tapping and mail censorship. Citizens cannot easily obtain passports and visas, though Jews, Russians and other ethnic minorities have been permitted to emigrate en masse in recent years.

In practice, ethnic Turkmen receive preferential treatment over Russians and Jews when applying for a job or attending school. Though women are granted equal political status to men, domestic abuse is common, and some Islamic institutions have favored men over women in property and inheritance disputes.

History of Jews in Turkmenistan

In 1839, several eastern Persian Jews, fleeing persecution, settled in the cities of Mary, Yoletan, and Baram-Ali. Due to the country's remoteness from major cities and its dearth of transportation and communication networks, little else is known about how this community developed during the Soviet era. At its peak in the 1980's, the Turkmen Jewish population reached 2,500, although some estimates place this figure as high as 4,000.

Conclusion

Antisemitism in Turkmenistan certainly affects the few remaining Jews there. On one hand, most such abuses cannot be distinguished from the general pattern of human rights violations. However, the emigration of the majority of Turkmen Jews since 1989 has made life even more precarious for those who remain. The almost complete lack of Jewish institutions, coupled with the growing influence of fundamentalist Islam, has created a potentially dire situation. Monitoring efforts must be strengthened.

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